Sociology (9699)
Topic 2 of 3Cambridge A Levels

Research Methods

Positivism, interpretivism, quantitative and qualitative approaches

Positivism: Society can be studied scientifically using objective, measurable data. Prefers **quantitative methods** — surveys, questionnaires, official statistics. Values **reliability** (repeatability) and **representativeness** (generalisation). Key figure: **Durkheim** (used suicide statistics to find social patterns).


Interpretivism: Society is too complex for purely scientific study. Prefers **qualitative methods** — unstructured interviews, participant observation. Values **validity** (deep understanding of meanings). Key figure: **Weber** (Verstehen — empathetic understanding).


Key methods:

  • Surveys/Questionnaires: Large samples, quantitative, easy to analyse. But low response rates, superficial, can't explore meanings.
  • Interviews: Structured (fixed questions) or unstructured (conversational). Depth vs reliability trade-off.
  • Observation: Participant (researcher joins group) or non-participant (watches). Rich data but **observer effect** (Hawthorne effect).
  • Official statistics: Readily available, large-scale. But socially constructed (dark figure of crime).

    • Ethical issues: Informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, protection from harm, no deception (usually).

    Key Points to Remember

    • 1Positivists: quantitative, reliability, scientific approach
    • 2Interpretivists: qualitative, validity, meanings
    • 3Observation risks Hawthorne effect (behaviour changes when watched)
    • 4Ethics: consent, confidentiality, protection from harm

    Pakistan Example

    Researching Karachi's Street Children — Method Matters

    Studying Karachi's estimated 1.5 million street children requires interpretivist methods — structured surveys won't capture their lived experiences. Participant observation (spending time with children in Saddar) yields richer data but raises ethical concerns about consent from minors and researcher safety. A positivist might use UNICEF statistics instead.

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